Motivation: Some
General Theories and Classroom Strategies and Practices
Greetings. The following materials are
intended to provide an introduction to motivation: some general theories and
classroom strategies and practices. They were assembled from the World Wide
Web, ERIC Database, and a variety of other bibliographic resources.
Instructions for acquiring the full text of the ERIC records are presented at
the end of this file.
AN: ED455962
AU: Moriarity,-Janice; Pavelonis,-Kim; Pellouchoud,-Deborah; Wilson,-Jeanne
TI: Increasing Student Motivation through the Use of Instructional
Strategies.
PY: 2001
NT: Master of Arts Action Research Project, SaintXavierUniversity and SkyLight Field-Based Masters
Program.
PR: EDRS Price MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
DL: http://www.edrs.com/members/sp.cfm?AN=ED455962
DEM: *Change-Strategies; *Intervention-; *Student-Improvement;
*Student-Motivation; *Teaching-Methods
DER: Action-Research; Cooperative-Learning; Elementary-Education; Grade-2;
Grade-4; Interdisciplinary-Approach; Parent-Attitudes; Program-Evaluation;
Student-Attitudes; Student-Educational-Objectives; Student-Participation
AB: This action research project sought to increase motivation in second- and
fourth-grade students in an urban Midwestern school. Achievement and skill
measures as well as observations indicated a lack of student participation
and interest. Three areas of intervention were implemented: cross-curricular
activities to heighten student interest, cooperative learning strategies to
promote participation and interaction, and teacher-designed activities that
focused on goal-setting and personal reflection. Follow-up data indicated
that active student participation increased, parent and student attitudes
toward school and learning became more positive, and students experienced
academic success by meeting personal goals and increasing their core of known
words for reading and writing. (Eleven appendices include surveys,
checklists, goal-setting and progress sheets, instructional sheets, and a
parent letter. Contains 30 references.) (EV)
AN: ED455961
AU: Carroll,-Lynda; Leander,-Susan
TI: Improving Student Motivation through the Use of Active Learning
Strategies.
PY: 2001
NT: Master of Arts Action Research Project, SaintXavierUniversity and SkyLight Field-Based Masters
Program.
PR: EDRS Price MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
DL: http://www.edrs.com/members/sp.cfm?AN=ED455961
DEM: *Active-Learning; *Change-Strategies; *Cooperative-Learning;
*Learning-Strategies; *Student-Improvement; *Student-Motivation
DER: Academic-Achievement; Action-Research; Grade-5; Intermediate-Grades;
Intervention-; Program-Evaluation; Questioning-Techniques; Social-Studies;
Student-Attitudes; Thinking-Skills
AB: This action research project sought to increase motivation in fifth-grade
social studies students. Observations and measures of student attitudes and
achievement indicated a lack of student interest in learning activities. Two
categories of intervention were implemented: (1) instruction in the use of
learning strategies, including graphic organizers and questioning techniques,
to improve higher order thinking skills and to increase students' ability to
organize and comprehend information; and (2) use of cooperative learning to
increase student motivation and enhance social skills. Post-intervention data
indicated an increase in student motivation. Students showed improvement in
attitudes and academic performance, felt more confident in their learning of
social studies, and sufficiently used the learning strategies implemented in
the project. (Six appendices include survey and observation forms and
classroom materials. Contains 17 references.) (EV)
AN: ED455464
AU: Goldberg,-Kim; Foster,-Karen; Maki,-Brett; Emde,-John; O'Kelly,-Mark
TI: Improving Student Motivation through Cooperative Learning and Other
Strategies.
PY: 2001
NT: Master of Arts Action Research Project, SaintXavierUniversity and Skylight Professional
Development Field-Based Masters Program.
PR: EDRS Price MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
DL: http://www.edrs.com/members/sp.cfm?AN=ED455464
DEM: *Academic-Achievement; *Cooperative-Learning; *Student-Motivation;
*Teacher-Student-Relationship
DER: High-School-Students; High-Schools; Middle-School-Students;
Middle-Schools; Student-Attitudes; Teacher-Influence
AB: This paper describes cooperative learning strategies to increase high
school and middle school students' motivation for doing well in school. The
targeted population consisted of middle school students in a physical education
and science classes, and high school students in science, technology, and
special education classes. Both schools are located in a middle-class,
suburban community in Illinois.
Analysis of probable cause data indicated that many students did not participate
in class regularly but rather came to school to socialize. Research reports
that students with poor motivation are often bored in school and have poor
relations with their teachers. Cooperative learning was chosen as the best
strategy for intervention following a review of research on strategies to
improve student motivation. The results of the actions taken showed a slight
increase in targeted behaviors in students. It was noted that students became
less dependent on teacher assistance and more cooperative with each other.
Evaluation instruments are appended. (Contains 35 references.) (JDM)
AN: ED454715
AU: Dornyei,-Zoltan
TI: Teaching and Researching Motivation. Applied Linguistics in Action.
PY: 2001
AV: Pearson Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate,
Harlow, Essex, CM20 2JE, England.
Web site: http://www.pearsoneduc.com.
PR: Document Not Available from EDRS.
DEM: *Learning-Motivation; *Student-Motivation; *Teacher-Motivation
DER: Applied-Linguistics; Diagrams-; English-Second-Language; Language-Research;
Literature-Reviews; Qualitative-Research; Questionnaires-;
Research-Methodology; Second-Language-Instruction; Second-Language-Learning;
Teacher-Researchers
AB: This book includes: a theoretical summary of the various facets of
motivation, an examination of how the theoretical insights can help classroom
practitioners in their everyday teaching practice and practical
recommendations on how motivation can be researched and assessed. The
following chapters are included: "Main Challenges of Motivation
Research"; "Theories of Motivation in Psychology";
"Motivation To Learn a Foreign/Second Language";
"'Education-Friendly' Approaches in Motivation Research";
"Motivation and Motivating in the Foreign Language Classroom";
"Student Demotivation"; "Teacher Motivation";
"Making Motivation a Researchable Concept"; "Methodological
Issues and Considerations"; "Main Types of L2 Motivation
Research"; "The Locus of Motivation Research: Linkages to Other
Topics and Disciplines." References and subject and author indexes are
also included. (Contains 356 references.) (KFT)
AN: ED452072
AU: Mac-Iver,-Douglas-J.; Young,-Estelle-M.; Washburn,-Benjamin
TI: Instructional Practices and Motivation during Middle School (with Special
Attention to Science).
PY: 2001
NT: Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational
Research Association (82nd, Seattle,
WA, April 10-14, 2001).
PR: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
DL: http://orders.edrs.com/members/sp.cfm?AN=ED452072
DEM: *Academic-Achievement; *Educational-Change; *Hands-on-Science;
*Science-Instruction
DER: Ability-Grouping; Middle-Schools; Motivation-; Science-Curriculum; Scientific-Literacy AB: Improvement of academic
achievement requires both changes in school organizational structures and in
curriculum and instruction. This study investigates the assumption of giving
"minds-on" opportunities to reflect and "hands-on"
opportunities to experiment and tests whether moving beyond the textbook
makes science class more engaging for middle school students. (Contains 67
references.) (YDS)
AN: EJ633354
AU: Daniels,-Denise-H.; Kalkman,-Deborah-L.; McCombs,-Barbara-L.
TI: Young Children's Perspectives on Learning and Teacher Practices in
Different Classroom Contexts: Implications for Motivation.
PY: 2001
SO: Early-Education-and-Development; v12 n2 p253-73 Apr 2001.
DEM: *Elementary-School-Students; *Elementary-School-Teachers;
*Preschool-Teachers; *Student-Attitudes; *Student-Motivation
DER: Context-Effect; Developmentally-Appropriate-Practices; Primary-Education;
School-Attitudes
AB: Investigated primary students' perceptions of teacher practices and
learning in learner-centered (LC) and non-learner-centered (NLC) classroom
contexts. Found that primary students valued similar characteristics in teachers
regardless of classroom context or grade level. Children's interest in
schoolwork and learning was lower in NLC classrooms than in LC classrooms,
especially for students who perceived their teachers as nonsupportive and
nonstimulating. (Author/KB)
AN: ED455524
AU: Cook,-Pamela-J.; Green,-Roxanne-M.; Meyer,-Tammy-S.; Saey,-Laura-A.
TI: Increasing Motivation To Write by Enhancing Self-Perception, Utilizing
Collaboration, Modeling and Relevance.
PY: 2001
NT: Master of Arts Action Research Project, SaintXavierUniversity and SkyLight Professional
Development.
PR: EDRS Price MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.
DL: http://www.edrs.com/members/sp.cfm?AN=ED455524
DEM: *Instructional-Effectiveness; *Student-Motivation; *Writing-Attitudes;
*Writing-Improvement; *Writing-Instruction
DER: Action-Research; High-Schools; Learning-Disabilities; Primary-Education;
Self-Concept; Student-Attitudes; Writing-Skills
AB: This report describes a program for increasing motivation in writing that
will enhance students' skills at a variety of grade levels. The targeted
population consisted of first, second, and third grade classes as well as
ninth through twelfth grade Learning Disabled students in a Midwestern state.
The evidence of lack of motivation was documented by parent surveys, student
surveys, teacher surveys and observations. Probable cause data showed
students are unmotivated to write due to low self confidence, lack of control
over writing tasks, inadequate amount of time to expand on writing pieces,
lack of emphasis on organizers, limited peer collaboration, and insufficient
relevance to real life. Faculty reported lack of student motivation in
writing tasks which hinder writing achievement. State data showed a decline
in writing scores at the targeted sites. A review of solution strategies
resulted in an action plan that included activities which incorporated
student choices, relevance, moderately challenging tasks and collaboration
with peers. Teacher instruction was guided by these points and included
modeling, adequate time for completion of writing activities, use of graphic
organizers, relevant writing tasks, pen pal correspondences and writing
throughout the curriculum. The research concluded with a final survey to
students and parents which showed an overall average increase in students'
attitudes towards writing and an increase in students' organizational skills
in writing tasks. Although the goal was to increase motivation, and the
researchers feel this did occur, it is difficult to measure using data. For this
reason, no substantial conclusions can be derived regarding the exact amount
of motivational impact on each student. The paper contains 44 references and
10 figures of data. Appendixes contain parent, teacher, and student survey
instruments; a pen pal activity reflection; and permission letters.
(Author/RS)
AN: ED443559
AU: Janes,-Leslie-M.; Koutsopanagos,-Caryn-Lee; Mason,-Diane-S.;
Villaranda,-Iris
TI: Improving Student Motivation through the Use of Engaged Learning,
Cooperative Learning and Multiple Intelligences.
PY: 2000
NT: Master's Action Research Project, SaintXavierUniversity
and SkyLight Field-Based Master's Program.
PR: EDRS Price MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.
DL: http://orders.edrs.com/members/sp.cfm?AN=ED443559
DE: *Academic-Achievement; *Cooperative-Learning;
*Elementary-School-Students; *Student-Motivation
DE: Action-Research; Elementary-Education; Multiple-Intelligences;
Program-Evaluation; Reading-Achievement
AB: Noting that poor student motivation and problematic social skills may interfere
with the academic growth of elementary school students, this action research
project examined the impact of a multifaceted intervention on student
motivation and achievement. Participating in the study were second and third
graders from 3 schools. The 12-week intervention was comprised of 3 elements:
(1) use of the theory of multiple intelligences in instruction; (2) the
incorporation of cooperative learning; and (3) the provision of an engaged
learning environment. Students worked in teacher-selected base groups weekly
for 15 minutes for data collection and reflection and in randomly-assigned
cooperative learning groups at least twice weekly for 30 to 45 minutes.
Cooperative learning activities taught appropriate social skills. Multiple
intelligence activities and a series of engaged learning activities were
incorporated into classroom practices. Data were collected through student
surveys and journals completed weekly, teacher observation checklists,
attendance records, and unit reading test scores. The findings of the
post-intervention data illustrated that implementing the theory of multiple
intelligences had a positive effect on the targeted classrooms. There were
decreases in missed reading assignments for two sites, and an increase for
one site. Students revealed positive attitudes toward themselves and their
school. Students' reading scores increased moderately from first to second
quarter. Participating teachers concluded that cooperative learning and
engaged learning were used together to successfully increase student
motivation and achievement. (Eleven appendices include data collection
instruments and sample lesson plans. Contains 23 references.) (KB)
AN: ED443550
AU: DeKeyrel,-Angela; Dernovish,-Julie; Epperly,-Annette; McKay,-Victoria
TI: Using Motivational Strategies To Improve Academic Achievement of Middle
School Students.
PY: 2000
NT: Master's Action Research Project, SaintXavierUniversity
and SkyLight Field-Based Masters Program.
PR: EDRS Price MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
DL: http://orders.edrs.com/members/sp.cfm?AN=ED443550
DE: *Academic-Achievement; *Change-Strategies; *Learning-Motivation;
*Middle-School-Students; *Student-Improvement; *Student-Motivation
DE: Action-Research; Classroom-Research; Cooperative-Learning; Intervention-;
Middle-Schools; Multiple-Intelligences; Student-Participation
AB: This action research project sought to improve student motivation in
order to increase academic performance among eighth graders in an urban
community. Evidence of academic underachievement and lack of student
participation was documented by means of teacher observations, incomplete and
missing assignments, and student questionnaires. Student, parent, and teacher
surveys were administered at the beginning of the 1999-2000 school year, and
a modified version of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire was
also administered to measure students' motivation. Four major interventions
were implemented: the requirement of an assignment notebook, increased
parental awareness through academic progress reports, implementation of
motivationally oriented content, and development of students' organizational
and study skills. In addition, a variety of cooperative learning and social
skill activities were incorporated. Post-intervention data indicated an
overall improvement in many areas, including completion of homework, feelings
about instructors, interest in class content, and academic achievement. The
incorporation of cooperative learning and multiple intelligence lessons was
found to strengthen student motivational levels and academic achievement.
(Eight appendices include survey forms and a sample student progress report.
Contains 25 references.) (EV)
AN: EJ607926
AU: Hemenway,-Merritt-V.
TI: What Effect Does Classroom Use of the Internet Have on the
Teacher-Student Relationship?
PY: 2000
SO: NASSP-Bulletin; v84 n615 p114-19 Apr 2000
DE: *Influences-; *Internet-; *Teacher-Response; *Teacher-Role;
*Teacher-Student-Relationship
DE: Computer-Uses-in-Education; Discovery-Learning; Discussion-Teaching-Technique;
High-Schools; Interviews-; Student-Motivation; Technical-Writing
AB: A random survey (with 25 followup interviews) asked 150 California
high-school teachers to describe differences in their classrooms since
students began using the Internet. Students are excited about using computers
and actively engaged in finding and discussing information and writing
reports. Teachers serve as motivators and learning guides. (MLH)
AN: ED442751
AU: Burden,-Paul-R.
TI: Powerful Classroom Management Strategies: Motivating Students to Learn.
PY: 2000
AV: Corwin Press, Inc., A Sage Publications Company, 2455 Teller Road,
Thousand Oaks, CA 91320-2218 ($21.95). Tel: 805-499-9774; e-mail:
order@corwinpress.com; Web site: http://www.corwinpress.com.
PR: EDRS Price MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.
DE: *Classroom-Techniques; *Student-Behavior; *Student-Motivation
DE: Academic-Achievement; Elementary-Secondary-Education;
Student-Participation; Students-
AB: This book describes how to use effective motivation in the classroom in
order to increase student learning and decrease classroom management problems
for K-12 classrooms. This book bridges the gap between theory and practice
with useful applications of motivation theory. It enables teachers to
determine the type of motivation their students need and provides tools to
respond to their needs. Highlights include specific strategies for motivating
students (including hard-to-reach students), case studies and vignettes,
suggested activities for another day, reflective chapter-end questions, and
Web sites for additional resources. The seven chapters are: (1) "The
Complex Nature of Motivation"; (2) "Motivating Students to
Learn"; (3) "A Framework for Motivating Students"; (4)
"Motivational Strategies Concerning Instruction"; (5)
"Motivational Strategies Concerning Evaluation and Recognition";
(6) "Academic and Behavioral Expectations"; and (7)
"Motivating Hard-to-Reach Students." (Contains 96 references.) (SM)
AN: EJ604774
AU: Prince,-Tamara-G.
TI: Using a "Living Lab" to Engage Students in the Foreign Language
Classroom.
PY: 2000
SO: Clearing-House; v73 n5 p263-65 May-Jun 2000
DE: *Instructional-Innovation; *Second-Language-Instruction;
*Student-Motivation; *Theater-Arts
DE: Playwriting-; Secondary-Education AB: Describes how a group of
foreign language teachers created and used a theatre set (called the
"living lab") with changeable painted backdrops. Describes a number
of ways to use the living lab in the language class; describes how one class
wrote and produced an original 10-page drama in French; and describes the
process of creating the living lab. (SR)
AN: EJ603123
AU: Hebb,-Judith-L.; Axiotis,-Vivian
TI: Toward a Learning Community of Teachers and Students.
PY: 2000
SO: English-Journal; v89 n4 p22-25 Mar 2000
NT: Theme: Reading
and Writing Together.
DE: *High-School-Students; *Literature-Appreciation; *Reading-Attitudes;
*Reading-Instruction; *Reading-Motivation; *Student-Attitudes
DE: Class-Activities; High-Schools; Reading-Aloud-to-Others;
Reading-Improvement; Reading-Processes
AB: Offers practical suggestions for encouraging reluctant (and all) high
school readers and writers. Advocates looking at student reluctance and
motivation; understanding the process of reading; understanding that everyone
learns differently; and that reading is a social act. Offers the response
from a high school English teacher with a sampling with what she does to
reach all readers in her classroom. (SR)
AN: ED443135
AU: Lumsden,-Linda
TI: Student Motivation: Cultivating a Love of Learning.
CS: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management, Eugene, OR.
PY: 1999
AV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management, 5207 University
of Oregon, Eugene, OR97403-5207; Tel: 541-346-5044; Fax: 541-346-2334;
Web site: http://eric.uoregon.edu.
NT: Foreword by Catherine Lewis.
PR: EDRS Price MF01/PC06 Plus Postage.
DL: http://orders.edrs.com/members/sp.cfm?AN=ED443135
DE: *Classroom-Techniques; *Competition-; *Motivation-Techniques; *Teacher-Attitudes;
*Teacher-Student-Relationship
DE: Curriculum-Development; Curriculum-Problems;
Elementary-Secondary-Education; Learning-Strategies; Public-Schools;
Self-Concept; Teacher-Expectations-of-Students
AB: Motivation is the ultimate product of many aspects of the school
experience: significant relationships between teachers and students and among
students; a meaningful, well-taught curriculum; teachers who maintain high
expectations and look for ways to help each student connect to the
curriculum; and opportunities for choice and self-evaluation that foster
students' ownership of learning. This book posits that young children's
natural motivation to learn will survive only in schools where the curriculum
is worth learning; where students focus on learning (not on competition or
grades); and where students feel valued, and, therefore, are disposed to care
about the school's values, including learning. The job of schools is to help
students develop a commitment to learning that sustains them even when a particular
task seems too difficult or unappealing. They are most likely to develop this
commitment in a school that meets their needs for belonging, contribution,
and meaningful work. Research suggests that practitioners who shift away from
systems of rewards and punishment and, instead, actively involve students in
shaping classroom climate and learning promote both students' motivation to
learn and their commitment to democratic values. (Contains 63 references.)
(DFR)
AN: ED439782
AU: Belcher,-Gay; Macari,-Nancy
TI: Enhancing Student Motivation as Evidenced by Improved Academic Growth and
Increased Work Completion.
PY: 1999
NT: Master's Action Research Project, SaintXavierUniversity
and IRI/Skylight.
PR: EDRS Price MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.
DL: http://orders.edrs.com/members/sp.cfm?AN=ED439782
DE: *Academic-Achievement; *Learning-Motivation; *Program-Effectiveness;
*Student-Attitudes; *Student-Improvement; *Student-Motivation
DE: Action-Research; Change-Strategies; Grade-5; Homework-; Intermediate-Grades;
Intervention-; Learning-Activities; Peer-Acceptance; Program-Descriptions;
School-Attitudes; Self-Esteem; Student-Interests; Student-Needs;
Teacher-Student-Relationship
AB: This project evaluated a program for enhancing student motivation as
evidenced by improved academic growth and increased work completion. The
targeted population consisted of fifth graders in a small school in a
medium-sized rural community in the Midwest.
The problem of lack of achievement motivation and lack of student concern about
academic growth was documented by means of spring staffing for special needs
students, report cards, anecdotal records from prior teachers, teacher
surveys and observations, records of homework completion, student and parent
surveys, and teachers' gradebooks. Analysis of probable cause data revealed
that lack of motivation stemmed from students' perceptions of non-acceptance
and poor self-esteem. Incomplete assignments, partially due to poor
organization and time management skills, contributed to the problem, along
with the possibility that assignments were not meaningful or enjoyable to
students. A review of solution strategies resulted in the selection of two
major types of interventions. One was the creation of a homework monitoring
program using assignment sheets and program incentives. The other was the use
of classroom activities to stimulate and motivate student participation and
interest that were supported by cooperative learning and multiple
intelligence activities. Post-intervention data indicated increased student
achievement motivation, as evidenced by improved academic achievement and a
reduction in incomplete assignments. Ten appendices include survey forms and
journal pages. (Contains 58 references.) (Author/TJQ)
AN: EJ600969
AU: Taylor,-Linda; Adelman,-Howard-S.
TI: Personalizing Classroom Instruction To Account for Motivational and
Developmental Differences.
PY: 1999
SO: Reading-and-Writing-Quarterly:-Overcoming-Learning-Difficulties; v15 n4
p255-76 Oct-Dec 1999
NT: Theme: Addressing Barriers to Student Learning--Systemic Changes at All
Levels.
DE: *Classroom-Techniques; *Individualized-Instruction;
*Remedial-Instruction; *Student-Motivation DE: Elementary-Secondary-Education;
Instructional-Improvement; Intervention- AB: Outlines an orientation to
teaching that stresses the necessity of matching both motivation and
capabilities and encompasses both regular instruction and remediation.
Emphasizes improving regular instruction by enhancing teachers' abilities to
personalize instruction. Notes the emphasis at all times is on use of the
least intervention needed and maintaining a focus on motivation as a primary
consideration. (RS)
AN: ED434775
AU: Grenchik,-Denise; O'Connor,-Elaine; Postelli,-Gina
TI: Effective Motivation through Meeting Student Needs.
PY: 1999
NT: Master's Action Research Project, SaintXavierUniversity
and IRI/Skylight.
PR: EDRS Price MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.
DL: http://orders.edrs.com/members/sp.cfm?AN=ED434775
DE: *Classroom-Environment; *Cooperative-Learning; *High-School-Students;
*Student-Motivation; *Student-Needs
DE: Action-Research; Adolescents-; Change-Strategies;
Educational-Environment; high-Schools; Journal-Writing; Portfolio-Assessment;
Program-Effectiveness; Student-Evaluation
AB: High school students' lack of personal responsibility and academic
ownership, negative or indifferent attitude, and lack of initiative and
general motivation are often of concern to teachers and parents. This action
research project evaluated an intervention to increase high school students'
motivation, responsibility, and initiative. Students were enrolled in a
freshman English or Spanish class and one art class comprised of students
from all grade levels in a parochial high school located near Chicago. The needs of parents,
students, and faculty with regard to the educational process were identified
by means of surveys; students' needs were identified as being distinct from
those of the other two groups. The one-semester intervention used cooperative
learning, authentic assessment, journal writing, and portfolio development to
meet students' needs for belonging, power, freedom, and fun within the
classroom environment. In order to assess the effects of the intervention,
the initial survey determining student needs provided baseline data.
Observational checklists were completed throughout the study to assess
progress in student participation and motivation. Self-assessments and
portfolios were also used to assess student responsibility for learning and
motivation. The needs survey was re-administered to identify needs not met by
the intervention. The findings indicated a positive correlation between the
teacher's intervention to meet student needs and the level of student
motivation. (Twenty-six appendices include data collection instruments and
sample instructional materials. Contains 20 references.) (KB)
AN: EJ588119
AU: Panitz,-Theodore
TI: The Motivational Benefits of Cooperative Learning.
PY: 1999
SO: New-Directions-for-Teaching-and-Learning; n78 p59-67 Sum 1999
NT: Theme issue: "Motivation from Within: Approaches for Encouraging
Faculty and Students To Excel."
DE: *Cooperative-Learning; *Learning-Motivation; *Learning-Processes;
*Relevance-Education; *Student-Motivation; *Values-
DE: Classroom-Techniques; Higher-Education; Instructional-Effectiveness;
Student-Attitudes
AB: Cooperative learning improves students' learning motivation in a diverse
college student population by creating a favorable disposition toward the
learning experience through personal relevance and choice; creating an
understanding that learners are effective in learning something they value;
and creating challenging, thoughtful learning experiences that include
learners' values and perspectives and contribute to an equitable society. (MSE)
AN: EJ588117
AU: Keller,-John-M.
TI: Using the ARCS Motivational Process in Computer-Based Instruction and
Distance Education.
PY: 1999
SO: New-Directions-for-Teaching-and-Learning; n78 p39-47 Sum 1999
NT: Theme issue: "Motivation from Within: Approaches for Encouraging
Faculty and Students To Excel."
DE: *Attention-; *Computer-Assisted-Instruction; *Distance-Education;
*Learning-Motivation; *Relevance-Education; *Self-Esteem
DE: Classroom-Techniques; Higher-Education; Models-; Participant-Satisfaction;
Student-Attitudes; Student-Motivation; Teaching-Methods
AB: The ARCS (attention/relevance/confidence/satisfaction) model of
motivational design provides a systematic seven-step approach to
incorporating motivational tactics into instruction. Application of the ARCS
model to computer-based instruction and distance education is examined,
identifying specific design factors that address needs in each of the four
ARCS areas. (MSE)
AN: EJ588114
AU: Wlodkowski,-Raymond-J.
TI: Motivation and Diversity: A Framework for Teaching.
PY: 1999
SO: New-Directions-for-Teaching-and-Learning; n78 p7-16 Sum 1999
NT: Theme issue: "Motivation from Within: Approaches for Encouraging
Faculty and Students To Excel."
DE: *Classroom-Environment; *College-Instruction; *Cultural-Influences;
*Diversity-Student; *Learning-Motivation; *Student-Motivation
DE: Cultural-Differences; Cultural-Pluralism; Higher-Education;
Sociocultural-Patterns
AB: Discussion of learning motivation and the influence of culture on it
reviews recent literature, explores differences between intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation, gives an overview of the motivational framework, and
makes suggestions for planning lessons to elicit intrinsic motivation among
culturally diverse students. The model's purpose is to respectfully evoke,
support, and enhance learning motivation that all students possess.
(Author/MSE)
AN: ED421281
AU: Anderman,-Lynley-Hicks; Midgley,-Carol
TI: Motivation and Middle School Students. ERIC Digest.
CS: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, Champaign, IL.
PY: 1998
PR: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
DL: http://orders.edrs.com/members/sp.cfm?AN=ED421281
DE: *Academic-Achievement; *Early-Adolescents; *Middle-Schools;
*Student-Motivation
DE: Attribution-Theory; Classroom-Environment; Goal-Orientation;
Intermediate-Grades; Junior-High-Schools; Motivation-Techniques;
Personal-Autonomy; Self-Determination; Student-Attitudes;
Teacher-Expectations-of-Students; Teacher-Student-Relationship; Teaching-Methods;
Theories-
AB: Research has shown a decline in motivation and performance for many
children as they move from elementary school into middle school; however,
research has also shown that the nature of motivational change on entry to
middle school depends on characteristics of the learning environment in which
students find themselves. This Digest outlines some suggestions for middle
school teachers and administrators for enhancing student motivation and
discusses three theories that are currently prominent and that have
particular relevance for young adolescent students and their teachers.
Attribution theory emphasizes that students' perceptions of their educational
experiences generally influence their motivation more than the objective
reality of those experiences. Through instructional practices, teachers can
unknowingly communicate a range of attitudes about whether ability is fixed
or modifiable and convey their expectations for individual students. Goal
theory focuses on the reasons students perceive for achieving: a task goal
orientation represents the belief that the purpose of achieving is personal
improvement and understanding; an ability goal orientation represents the
belief that the purpose of achieving is the demonstration of ability. Studies
find that the adoption of task goals is associated with more adaptive
patterns of learning than is the adoption of ability goals. A third
motivational theory of importance for middle school educators is
self-determination theory. This theory describes students as having three
categories of needs: needing a sense of competence, of relatedness to others,
and of autonomy. Most of the research focuses on the last of these three
needs. Within the classroom, autonomy needs could be addressed through
allowing student choice and input on classroom decision making. It is
important to recognize that supporting student autonomy does not require
major upheaval in the classroom or that teachers relinquish the management of
students' behavior. Even small opportunities for choice can increase
students' sense of self-determination. Contains 13 references. (LPP)
AN: ED423824
AU: Bohlin,-Roy-M.
TI: The Affective Domain: A Model of Learner-Instruction Interactions.
PY: 1998
NT: In: Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Presentations at the
National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and
Technology (AECT) Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (20th, St.
Louis, MO, February 18-22, 1998); see IR 019 040.
PR: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
DE: *Affective-Behavior; *Cognitive-Processes; *Student-Attitudes;
*Student-Motivation
DE: Classification-; Educational-Objectives; Epistemology-;
Instructional-Design; Interaction-; Models-; Theory-Practice-Relationship
AB: This paper presents a model for those interested in the design and/or
research of instruction in the affective domain. This model is an integration
of current theories and models in the affective domain. It is a broad and
comprehensive model which represents the hierarchical structures and
interactions of affective and related cognitive factors, including attitudes,
beliefs, values, anxiety, motivation, attributions, confidence, and
interests. The first section of the paper provides a theoretical framework of
research in the affective domain; three figures depict taxonomies of the
affective domain. Constructs of interest to those who work in the affective
domain are defined in the second section. The third section describes the
Model of
Learner-Instruction Interactions in the Affective Domain; a diagram shows the
interactive relationship of instructionally important factors (e.g.,
attributions, confidence, attitudes, motivation, and values). Applications
and limitations of the model are discussed. Implications of this model and
ways that researchers and designers can contribute to the model are also
considered. Contains 12 references. (DLS)
AN: ED419460
AU: Brown,-Sally, ed.; Armstrong,-Steve, ed.; Thompson,-Gail, ed.
TI: Motivating Students. Staff and Educational Development Series.
CS: Staff and Educational Development Association, Birmingham
(England).
PY: 1998
AV: Kogan Page, 120 Pentonville Road, LondonN1 9JN, England,
United Kingdom
(18.99 British pounds).
PR: Document Not Available from EDRS.
DE: *College-Students; *Student-Motivation; *Teaching-Methods
DE: Classroom-Techniques; Diversity-(Student); Foreign-Countries;
Higher-Education; Student-Development; Student-Evaluation;
Student-School-Relationship; Teacher-Student-Relationship;
Undergraduate-Study
AB: Twenty papers on motivating college students are grouped into four
sections: (1) the impact of teaching on student motivation; (2) motivating
diverse students; (3) the impact of university practices on motivation; and
(4) the impact of assessment on motivation. After an introductory selection
by Sally Brown, Steve Armstrong, and Gail Thompson, the papers are:
"Interactivity as an Extrinsic Motivating Force in Learning"
(Philip Barker); "Motivation and Approaches to Learning: Motivating and
Conceptions of Teaching" (Noel Entwistle); "Intervention and
Motivation: What Affects What?" (Ian Solomonides); "Understanding
Motives in Learning: Mature Students and Learner Responsibility" (Ron
Iphofen); "Teaching: Creating a Thirst for Learning?" (Phil Race);
"Perspectives on Motivation: The Implications for Effective Learning in
Higher Education" (Della Fazey and John Fazey); "Students'
Motivation in Higher Education Contexts" (Kim Isroff and Teresa del
Soldato); "Age, Gender and Course Differences in Approaches to Studying
in First-Year Undergraduate Students" (Rhona Magee et al.);
"Learner Autonomy Beyond the Curriculum: Students' Mtivations and
Institutional Community" (Gillian Winfield and Selena Bolingbroke);
"Does Gender Affect Students' Aproaches to Learning?" (Kay
Greasley); "Layers of Motivation: Individual Orientations and Contextual
Influences" (Linda France and Liz Beaty); "The Effect of Stressors
on Student Motivation: A Report of Work in Progress at Sunderland Business
School" (Gail Thompson); "Undergraduate Research Projects:
Motivation and Skills Development" (Martin Luck);
"Multidisciplinary Student Teams Motivated by Industrial
Experience" (Paul Wellington); "Motivational Perspectives and
Work-Based Learning" (Debbie Keeling et al.); "Learning as an Aesthetic
Practice: Motivation through Beauty in Higher Education" (Alan
Bleakley); "Motivating Student Learning through Facilitating
Independence: Self and Peer Assessment of Reflective Practice--An Action
Research Project" (Julie Mortimer); "Individual Differences in
Student Motivation" (Stephen Newstead); and "Motivation in
Assessment" (Linda Leach et al.). (Individual chapters contain
references.) (DB)
AN: EJ563880
AU: Rinne,-Carl-H.
TI: Motivating Students Is a Percentage Game.
PY: 1998
SO: Phi-Delta-Kappan; v79 n8 p620-24,26,28 Apr 1998
DE: *Classroom-Techniques; *Learning-Motivation; *Lesson-Plans;
*Self-Motivation; *Student-Motivation DE: Secondary-Education;
Teacher-Role; Teaching-Methods
AB: About half of regular secondary students make no consistent effort to
learn. Intrinsic appeals are applicable to any lesson in any subject at any
level. These include novelty, anticipation, security, challenge, completion
(of logically connected project segments), application of learned skills,
feedback, identification (via possession, belonging, achievement, and
projection), and competition. The goal is involvement, rather than enjoyment.
(MLH)
Writing is a skill we need both in school and in the workplace. In this
book we focus on motivation, especially on specific steps you can take to
motivate your child to learn. We answer practical questions from parents
and describe activities you can use at home. Three stories are also
included to read with your child or listen along with on audio tape.
Other Resources
(available either for sale or via interlibrary loan)
Title: Best practice in motivation and
management in the classroom.
Authors: Wiseman, Dennis.; Hunt, Gilbert.
Year: 2001
Publisher: Charles C. Thomas.
Title: Tools for teaching : discipline, instruction, motivation.
Authors: Jones, Fredric H.; Jones, Patrick.; Jones, Jo Lynne Talbott.
Year: 2000
Publisher: Jones & Associates.
Title: Helping kids achieve their best : understanding and using motivation
in the classroom.
Author: McInerney, D. M.
Year: 2000
Publisher: Allen & Unwin.
Title: Engaging young readers : promoting achievement and motivation.
Authors: Baker, Linda.; Dreher, Mariam Jean.
Year: 2000
Publisher: Guilford
Press.
Title: Healthy classroom management : motivation, communication, and
discipline.
Author: Nakamura, Raymond M.
Year: 2000
Publisher: Wadsworth.
Title: The impact of motivation in your classroom.
Authors: Woolbright, Nona.; Williams, Robin.
Year: 1998
Publisher: University
of Georgia.
Title: 150 Ways to Increase Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom
Author: James P. Raffini, University
of Wisconsin,
Whitewater
Year: 1996
ISBN: 0-205-16567-2
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The following definitions of motivation
were gleaned from a variety of psychology textbooks and reflect the general
consensus that motivation is an internal state or condition (sometimes
described as a need, desire, or want) that serves to activate or energize
behavior and give it direction (see Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981a).
internal state or condition
that activates behavior and gives it direction;
desire or want that energizes
and directs goal-oriented behavior;
influence of needs and
desires on the intensity and direction of behavior.
Franken (1994) provides an additional component in his definition:
the arousal, direction, and
persistence of behavior.
While still not widespread in terms of introductory psychology textbooks,
many researchers are now beginning to acknowledge that the factors that
energize behavior are likely different from the factors that provide for its
persistence.
Importance of motivation
Most motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the
performance of all learned responses; that is, a learned behavior will not
occur unless it is energized. The major question among psychologists, in
general, is whether motivation is a primary or secondary influence on behavior.
That is, are changes in behavior better explained by principles of
environmental/ecological influences, perception, memory, cognitive development,
emotion, explanatory style, or personality or are concepts unique to motivation
more pertinent.
For example, we know that people respond to increasingly complex or novel
events (or stimuli) in the environment up to a point and then responses
decrease. This inverted-U-shaped curve of behavior is well-known and widely
acknowledged (e.g., Yerkes
& Dodson, 1908). However, the major issue is one of explaining this
phenomenon. Is this a conditioning (is the individual behaving because of past
classical or operant conditioning), a motivational process (from an internal
state of arousal), or is there some better explanation?
The relationship of motivation and emotion
Emotion
(an indefinite subjective sensation experienced as a state of arousal) is
different from motivation in that there is not necessarily a goal orientation
affiliated with it. Emotions occur as a result of an interaction between
perception of environmental stimuli, neural/hormonal responses to these
perceptions (often labeled feelings), and subjective cognitive labeling of
these feelings (Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981b). Evidence suggests there is a
small core of core emotions (perhaps 6 or 8) that are uniquely associated with
a specific facial expression (Izard, 1990). This implies that there are a small
number of unique biological responses that are genetically hard-wired to
specific facial expressions. A further implication is that the process works in
reverse: if you want to change your feelings (i.e., your physiological
functioning), you can do so by changing your facial expression. That is, if you
are motivated to change how you feel and your feeling is associated with a
specific facial expression, you can change that feeling by purposively changing
your facial expression. Since most of us would rather feel happy than
otherwise, the most appropriate facial expression would be a smile.
Explanations of influences/causes of arousal and direction may be
different from explanations of persistence
In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be
categorized as either extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic (internal to
the person). Intrinsic sources and corresponding theories can be further
subcategorized as either body/physical, mind/mental (i.e., cognitive,
affective, conative) or transpersonal/spiritual.
In current literature, needs are now viewed as dispositions toward action
(i.e., they create a condition that is predisposed towards taking action or
making a change and moving in a certain direction). Action or overt behavior
may be initiated by either positive or negative incentives or a combination of
both. The following chart provides a brief overview of the different sources of
motivation (internal state) that have been studied. While initiation of action
can be traced to each of these domains, it appears likely that initiation of
behavior may be more related to emotions and/or the affective area (optimism
vs. pessimism; self- esteem; etc.) while persistence may be more related to
conation (volition) or goal-orientation.
Many of the theories of motivation address issues introduced previously in
these materials. The following provides a brief overview to any terms or
concepts that have not been previously discussed.
Behavioral
Each of the major theoretical approaches in behavioral learning theory
posits a primary factor in motivation. Classical
conditioning states that biological responses to associated stimuli
energize and direct behavior. Operant learning states the primary factor is consequences:
the application of reinforcers provides incentives to increase behavior; the
application of punishers provides disincentives that result in a decrease in
behavior.
Cognitive
There are several motivational theories that trace their roots to the information
processing approach to learning. These approaches focus on the categories
and labels people use help to identify thoughts, emotions, dispositions, and
behaviors.
A first cognitive approach is attribution
theory (Heider, 1958; Weiner, 1974). This theory proposes that every
individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering
certain "attributions." These attributions are either internal or
external and are either under control or not under control. The following chart
shows the four attributions that result from a combination of internal or
external locus of control and whether or not control is possible.
Internal
External
No Control
Ability
Luck
Control
Effort
Task Difficulty
In a teaching/learning environment, it is important to assist the learner to
develop a self-attribution explanation of effort (internal, control). If the
person has an attribution of ability (internal, no control) as soon as the
individual experiences some difficulties in the learning process, he or she
will decrease appropriate learning behavior (e.g., I'm not good at this). If
the person has an external attribution, then nothing the person can do will
help that individual in a learning situation (i.e., responsibility for
demonstrating what has been learned is completely outside the person). In this
case, there is nothing to be done by the individual when learning problems
occur.
A second cognitive approach is expectancy
theory (Vroom, 1964) which proposes the following equation:
Motivation = Perceived Probability
of Success (Expectancy) *
Connection of Success and Reward (Instrumentality) *
Value of Obtaining Goal (Valance, Value)
Since this formula states that the three factors of
Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valance or Value are to be multiplied by each
other, a low value in one will result in a low value of motivation. Therefore,
all three must be present in order for motivation to occur. That is, if an
individual doesn't believe he or she can be successful at a task OR the
individual does not see a connection between his or her activity and success OR
the individual does not value the results of success, then the probability is
lowered that the individual will engage in the required learning activity. From
the perspective of this theory, all three variables must be high in order for
motivation and the resulting behavior to be high.
The third cognitive approach is cognitive dissonance
theory which is in some respects similar to disequilibrium in Piaget's
theory of cognitive development. This theory was developed by Leon Festinger
(1957), as social psychologist, and states that when there is a discrepancy
between two beliefs, two actions, or between a belief and an action, we will
act to resolve conflict and discrepancies. The implication is that if we can
create the appropriate amount of disequilibrium, this will in turn lead to the
individual changing his or her behavior which in turn will lead to a change in
thought patterns which in turn leads to more change in behavior.
Summary
To summarize the cognitive approaches, notice the
relationship between William James' formula for self-esteem
(Self-esteem = Success / Pretensions) and the attribution and expectancy
theories of motivation. If a person has an external attribution of success,
self-concept is not likely to change as a result of success or failure because
the person will attribute it to external factors. Likewise, if the person has
an Internal/Ability explanation, his or her self-concept will be tied to
learning to do a new activity quickly and easily (I do well because I'm
naturally good at it). If failure or difficulty occurs, the person must quickly
lower expectations in order to maintain self-esteem. However, if the person has
a Internal/Effort explanation and high expectations for success, the person
will persevere (i.e., stay motivated) in spite of temporary setbacks because
one's self-esteem is not tied to immediate success.
Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we will
seek balance or homeostasis in our lives and will resist influences or
expectations to change. How, then, does change or growth occur. One source,
according to Piaget, is biological development. As we mature cognitively we
will rework our thinking and organizations of knowledge (e.g., schemas,
paradigms, explanations) to more accurately reflect our understanding of the
world. One of those organizations involves our explanations or attributions of
success or failure. After puberty, when biological change slows down
considerably, it is very difficult to change these attributions. It requires a
long-term program where constant feedback is given about how one's behavior is
responsible for one's success.
The psychoanalytic theories of motivation propose a
variety of fundamental influences. Freud (1990) suggested that all action or
behavior is a result of internal, biological instincts that are classified into
two categories: life (sexual) and death (aggression). Many of Freud's students
broke with him over this concept. For example, Erikson
(1993) and Sullivan (1968) proposed that interpersonal and social relationships
are fundamental, Adler (1989) proposed power, while Jung (1953, 1997) proposed
temperament and search for soul or personal meaningfulness.
One of the most influential writers in the area of
motivation is Abraham
Maslow (1954).
Abraham Maslow (1954)
attempted to synthesize a large body of research related to human
motivation. Prior to Maslow, researchers generally focused separately on
such factors as biology, achievement, or power to explain what energizes,
directs, and sustains human behavior. Maslow posited a hierarchy of human needs
based on two groupings: deficiency needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency
needs, each lower need must be met before moving to the next higher level. Once
each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some future time a deficiency is
detected, the individual will act to remove the deficiency. The first four
levels are:
3) Belonginess and Love: affiliate with others, be
accepted; and
4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval
and recognition.
According to Maslow, an individual is ready to act
upon the growth needs if and only if the deficiency needs are met. Maslow's
initial conceptualization included only one growth need--self-actualization.
Self-actualized people are characterized by: 1) being problem-focused; 2)
incorporating an ongoing freshness of appreciation of life; 3) a concern about
personal growth; and 4) the ability to have peak experiences. Maslow later differentiated the
growth need of self-actualization, specifically naming two lower-level
growth needs prior to general level of self-actualization (Maslow & Lowery,
1998) and one beyond that level (Maslow, 1971). They are:
5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore;
6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;
7) Self-actualization:
to find self-fulfillment and realize one's potential; and
8) Self-transcendence:
to connect to something beyond the ego or to help others find self-fulfillment
and realize their potential.
Maslow's basic position is that as one becomes more
self-actualized and self-transcendent,
one becomes more wise (develops wisdom) and automatically knows what to do in a
wide variety of situations. Daniels (2001)
suggests that Maslow's ultimate conclusion that the highest levels of
self-actualization are transcendent in their nature may be one of his most
important contributions to the study of human behavior and motivation.
Norwood
(1999) proposes that Maslow's hierarchy can be used to describe the kinds of
information that individual's seek at different levels. For example,
individuals at the lowest level seek coping information in order to meet
their basic needs. Information that is not directly connected to helping a
person meet his or her needs in a very short time span is simply left
unattended. Individuals at the safety level need helping information.
They seek to be assisted in seeing how they can be safe and secure. Enlightening
information is sought by individuals seeking to meet their belongingness
needs. Quite often this can be found in books or other materials on
relationship development. Empowering information is sought by people at
the esteem level. They are looking for information on how their ego can be
developed. Finally, people in the growth levels of cogntive, aesthetic, and
self-actualization seek edifying information. While Norwood does not specifically address the
level of transcendence, I believe it safe to say that individuals at this stage
would seek information on how to connect to something beyond themselves or to
how others could be edified.
Maslow published his first conceptualization of his
theory over 50 years ago (Maslow, 1943) and it has since become one of the most
popular and often cited theories of human motivation. An interesting phenomenon
related to Maslow's work is that in spite of a lack of evidence to support his
hierarchy, it enjoys wide acceptance (Wahba & Bridgewell, 1976; Soper,
Milford & Rosenthal, 1995).
The few major studies that have been completed on
the hierarchy seem to support the proposals of William James
(1892/1962) and Mathes (1981) that there are three levels of human needs. James
hypothesized the levels of material (physiological, safety), social
(belongingness, esteem), and spiritual.
Mathes proposed the three levels were physiological, belonginess, and self-actualization;
he considered security and self-esteem as unwarranted. Alderfer (1972)
developed a comparable hierarchy with his ERG (existence, relatedness, and
growth) theory. His approach modified Maslow's theory based on the work of Gordon Allport (1960,
1961) who incorporated concepts from systems theory into his
work on personality.
Alderfer's
Hierarchy of Motivational Needs
Level of Need
Definition
Properties
Growth
Impel a person to make creative or productive effects on
himself and his environment
Satisfied through using capabilities in engaging problems;
creates a greater sense of wholeness and fullness as a human being
Relatedness
Involve relationships with significant others
Satisfied by mutually sharing thoughts and feelings;
acceptance, confirmation, under- standing, and influence are elements
Existence
Includes all of the various forms of material and
psychological desires
When divided among people one person's gain is another's
loss if resources are limited
Maslow recognized that not all personalities followed his proposed hierarchy.
While a variety of personality dimensions might be considered as related to
motivational needs, one of the most often cited is that of introversion and extroversion.
Reorganizing Maslow's hierarchy based on the work of Alderfer and considering
the introversion/extraversion dimension of personality results in three levels,
each with an introverted and extroverted component. This organization suggests
there may be two aspects of each level that differentiate how people relate to
each set of needs. Different personalities might relate more to one dimension
than the other. For example, an introvert at the level of Other/Relatedness
might be more concerned with his or her own perceptions of being included in a
group, whereas an extrovert at that same level would pay more attention to how
others value that membership.
A Reorganization
of Maslow's and Alderfer's Hierarchies
Level
Introversion
Extroversion
Growth
Self-Actualization (development of competencies
[knowledge, attitudes, and skills] and character)
At this point there is little agreement about the
identification of basic human needs
and how they are ordered. For example, Ryan & Deci (2000) also suggest
three needs, although they are not necessarily arranged hierarchically: the
need for autonomy, the need for competence, and the need for relatedness.
Thompson, Grace and Cohen (2001) state the most important needs for children
are connection, recognition, and power. Nohria, Lawrence, and Wilson (2001)
provide evidence from a sociobiology theory of motivation that humans have four
basic needs: (1) acquire objects and experiences; (2) bond with others in
long-term relationships of mutual care and commitment; (3) learn and make sense
of the world and of ourselves; and (4) to defend ourselves, our loved ones,
beliefs and resources from harm. The Institute for Management Excellence (2001)
suggests there are nine basic human needs: (1) security, (2) adventure, (3)
freedom, (4) exchange, (5) power, (6) expansion, (7) acceptance, (8) community,
and (9) expression.
Notice that bonding and relatedness are a component
of every theory. However, there do not seem to be any others that are mentioned
by all theorists. Franken (2001) suggests this lack of accord may be a result
of different philosophies of researchers rather than differences among human beings.
In addition, he reviews research that shows a person's explanatory or attributional
style will modify the list of basic needs. Therefore, it seems appropriate
to ask people what they want and how their needs could be met rather than
relying on an unsupported theory. For example, Waitley (1996) advises having a
person imagine what life would be like if time and money were not an object in
a person's life. That is, what would the person do this week, this month, next
month, if he or she had all the money and time needed to engage in the
activities and were secure that both would be available again next year. With
some follow-up questions to identify what is keeping the person from happening
now, this open-ended approach is likely to identify the most important needs of
the individual.
There is much work still to be done in this area
before we can rely on a theory to be more informative than simply collecting
and analyzing data. However, this body of research can be very important to
parents, educators, administrators and others concerned with developing and
using human potential. It provides an outline of some important issues that
must be addressed if human beings are to achieve the levels of character and
competencies necessary to be successful in the information age.
Maslow's work lead to additional attempts to
develop a grand theory of motivation, a theory that would put all of the
factors influencing motivation into one model. An example is provided by Leonard,
Beauvais, and Scholl (1995). These authors propose 5 factors as the sources
of motivation: 1) Instrumental Motivation (rewards and punishers), 2) Intrinsic
Process Motivation (enjoyment, fun), 3) Goal Internalization (self-determined
values and goals), 4) Internal Self Concept-based Motivation (matching behavior
with internally-developed ideal self), 5) External Self Concept-based
Motivation (matching behavior with externally-developed ideal self).
Individuals are influenced by all five factors, though in varying degrees that
can change in specific situations.
Factors one and five are both externally-oriented.
The main difference is that individuals who are instrumentally motivated are
influenced more by immediate actions in the environment (e.g. operant
conditioning) whereas individuals who are self-concept motivated are influenced
more by their constructions of external demands and ideals (e.g., social cognition).
Factors two, three, and four are more
internally-oriented. In the case of intrinsic process, the specific task is
interesting and provides immediate internal reinforcement (e.g., cognitive or
humanistic theory). The individual with a goal-internalization orientation is
more task-oriented (e.g., humanistic or social cognition theory) whereas the
person with an internal self-concept orientation is more influenced by
individual constructions of the ideal self (humanistic or psychoanalytic
theory).
Social learning (or observational)
theory suggests that modeling
(imitating others) and vicarious
learning (watching others have consequences applied to their behavior) are
important motivators of behavior.
Social cognition theory proposes reciprocal determination as a primary
factor in both learning and motivation. In this view, the environment, an
individual's behavior, and the individual's characteristics (e.g., knowledge,
emotions, cognitive development) both influence and are influenced by each
other two components. Bandura (1986, 1997) highlights self-efficacy (the belief
that a particular action is possible and that the individual can accomplish it)
and self-regulation (the establishment of goals, the development of a plan to
attain those goals, the commitment to implement that plan, the actual
implementation of the plan, and subsequent actions of reflection and
modification or redirection. The work of Ames
(1992) and Dweck (1986) discussed below is a major component of social
cognitive views on motivation.
Transpersonal or Spiritual Theories
Most of the transpersonal
or spiritual
theories deal with the meaningfulness of our lives or ultimate meanings.
Abraham Maslow (1954) has also been influential in this approach to motivation.
Other influential scholars included Gordon Allport (1955), Victor Frankl
(1998), William James (1997), Carl Jung (1953, 1997), Ken Wilber (1998).
Achievement motivation
One classification of motivation differentiates
among achievement, power, and social factors (see McClelland, 1985; Murray, 1938, 1943). In
the area of achievement motivation, the work on goal-theory
has differentiated three separate types of goals: mastery goals (also
called learning goals) which focus on gaining competence or mastering a new set
of knowledge or skills; performance goals (also called ego-involvement
goals) which focus on achieving normative-based standards, doing better than
others, or doing well without a lot of effort; and social goals which
focus on relationships among people (see Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986; Urdan &
Maehr, 1995). In the context of school learning, which involves operating in a
relatively structured environment, students with mastery goals outperform
students with either performance or social goals. However, in life success, it
seems critical that individuals have all three types of goals in order to be
very successful.
One aspect of this theory is that individuals are
motivated to either avoid failure (more often associated with performance
goals) or achieve success (more often associated with mastery goals). In the
former situation, the individual is more likely to select easy or difficult
tasks, thereby either achieving success or having a good excuse for why failure
occurred. In the latter situation, the individual is more likely to select
moderately difficult tasks which will provide an interesting challenge, but
still keep the high expectations for success.
Impacting motivation in the classroom
Stipek (1988) suggests there are a variety of reasons
why individuals may be lacking in motivation and provides a list of specific
behaviors associated with high academic achievement. This is an excellent
checklist to help students develop the conative
component of their lives. In addition, as stated previously in these materials,
teacher
efficacy is a powerful input variable related to student achievement
(Proctor, 1984).
There are a variety of specific actions that
teachers can take to
increase motivation on classroom tasks. In general, these fall into the two
categories discussed above: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
oExplain or show why learning a particular
content or skill is important
oCreate and/or maintain curiosity
oProvide a variety of activities and sensory
stimulations
oProvide games and simulations
oSet goals for learning
oRelate learning to student needs
oHelp student develop plan of action
oProvide clear expectations
oGive corrective feedback
oProvide valuable rewards
oMake rewards available
As a general rule, teachers need to use as much of
the intrinsic suggestions as possible while recognizing that not all students
will be appropriately motivated by them. The extrinsic suggestions will work,
but it must be remembered that they do so only as long as the student is under
the control of the teacher. When outside of that control, unless the desired
goals and behaviors have been internalized, the learner will cease the desired
behavior and operate according to his or her internal standards or to other
external factors.
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